Recruit, Retain, and Develop A Culture of More Effective Leaders and Employees
Posted: Thursday, July 07, 2005
by Dr. Timothy Detary
Recruit, Retain, and Develop A Culture of More Effective Leaders and Employees
How The Application of the Principles of Positive Psychology Can Change The Lives of the People in Your Organization
Timothy J. Detary, D.B.A.
Happiness, Meaning, and Purpose
Disciplines such as religion, philosophy, psychiatry, and psychology have all attempted to tell us what it means to be happy. Two of my favorite happiness heroes are Martin Seligman and Mikel Csikszentmihalyi. The former is the author of Authentic Happiness and Learned Optimism, a professor of Psychology at the University of Pennsylvania , former President of the American Psychological Association, and the founding father of the positive psychology movement.
Professor Csikszentmihalyi is the author of Flow: The Optimal Experience and Creativity:The Ultimate Experience, a professor at the Clairmont Graduate School of Business, and is a co-founder of the positive psychology movement. Rather than focusing on the traditional treatments of mental illness , the focus of positive psychology is to develop positive human qualities that facilitate psychological health and happiness, which can endow our lives with meaning and purpose.
With this in mind, serving in various administrative capacities the last twelve years in the Long-term care and hospice industries, I searched for life enriching ideas which embraced an emotional model that would engender an attitude of hope, confidence , and enthusiasm into the lives of caregivers . As hospice centers, hospitals, and nursing homes are sometimes unfairly characterized as places of disease, death, and depression, caregivers are often times under tremendous emotional pressure to sustain a positive affect and hope for a more emotionally rewarding future.
Consequently, when I discovered the concepts of flow, self-efficacy , and optimism, I knew that I had encountered a new avenue of opportunity for emotional well being. My new found enthusiasm was predicated upon the belief that some social scientists theorize that our happiness is contingent upon our ability to identify and develop our strengths in conjunction with learning to become more emotionally persuasive and increasingly effective with other people. Therefore, the common theme of positive psychology is that if we are able to identify and nurture our strengths, there is a significant chance that our general affect will substantially improve. The purpose of this article is to examine how we can all learn to feel better, achieve more, and become more effective leaders.
Flow
Flow Research and The Workplace
The world’s foremost authority on this subject, Mikel Csikszentimihlyi (1990) initially conducted happiness research with the motive of discovering what caused some people to enjoy one activity more than another. One of his goals was to discover why a person would be able to find enjoyment in any situation, regardless of the circumstance. Leaders who routinely engage in flow generate excitement, commitment, and passion, which often leads to meaningful and positive goal – setting. These people experience a profound sense of emotional well being and have tremendous positive impact on the people within their sphere of influence. Flow occurs in our lives when we would describe a particular activity that we are involved with as being “completely absorbing" to such an extent, that we become unaware of ourselves and lose all sense of time. Happiness is the natural emotional result of having a flow experience.
Today, there is tremendous pressure being placed on management teams to increase productivity while finding a balance with an increased sense of meaning and purpose within our cultures. While it is true that some employees do possess a high degree of intrinsic motivation, more often employees perform at levels that do not display this quality. As such, one of the goals of flow is to find enjoyment in any situation therefore, the acquisition of flow skills can add a new sense of meaning and purpose into any employee’s personal or vocational life.
In finding flow, Csikszentmihalyi describes it as “a distinctive state of mind and feeling in which learning is effortless and delightful". Flow is about becoming obsessed, “consumed and fulfilled" with an activity to such as extent that feelings of joy might occur. In the flow state, there is an apparent amalgamation between learning and happiness. During flow, concern for the self disappears and yet in a very real contradictory way, the sense of self emerges stronger than before the flow experience began (Csikszentmihalyi, 1993).
Flow events provide the individual with an ongoing sense of achievement as opposed to an endless search for meaning and happiness. When we are in flow we are usually involved in new and challenging pursuits that act in concert with our interests, skill levels, abilities, and values. While we are in flow, we concentrate on one task at a time and immerse ourselves as we “let go" of the outside world. We lose all sense of time as hours that are engaged in flow can appear as minutes. In order for flow to occur, we must find ourselves a particular situation where the relative demand to perform an activity is balanced with our skill level that is needed in order to successfully complete the task. As such, Hagvevik (1994) describes this flow process as a delicate balance between "being anxious and being bored".
How Can We Experience Flow?
In his flow research, Csikszentmihalyi found that 15% of the general population have never experienced flow. Therefore, in order to discover what may potentially bring flow into our employees’ lives, they must explore activities that make them feel involved, excited, or absorbed (Csataril, 1996). This will occur when they engage in actions in which they lose their sense of self and focus on a very particular and specific task. Behaviors that are conductive to flow have a great deal in common. That is, goals for the activity are very clear and the person knows how we are doing from one moment to the next.
Flow cannot be manufactured at will as it begins with a mental performance or physical activity. We can, however, create conditions that will increase the probability that flow will occur. Examples of these might include preparing for an increasingly more complex activity, learning to focus on what is being done, or by attempting to move distractions that we would have control over in the environment (Csatari, 1996).
The ancient Greeks understood flow as it was remarkably similar to their concept of education, which they called “paidia." It was also analogous to what they considered play, or “paida." To the Greeks, learning and play were viewed as a symbiotic relationship. Flow therefore requires us to stretch our abilities to integrate play and learning into meaningful events which result in pure enjoyment.
With this in mind, all creative people have one thing in common – they love what they do. And yet why is it that when researchers interviewed people from all walks of life, they found many people despised what they did for a living?
One rational explanation is that the people who love what they do must have discovered a way to love their jobs. It would follow then that it is not the function of our work itself that makes it so intrinsically rewarding, but rather the certain way in which our work is performed. This involves our emotional and intellectual lives and learning to develop an autotelic personality.
What is an Autotelic Personality?
Anyone can develop an autotelic personality by exhibiting behaviors that are essentially self-directing or self- rewarding. That is, we all have the capacity to enjoy what we are doing even when there is no hope for an external reward.
“Autotelic" is derived from the Greek word “auto" for self and “telos" which means goal. People who possess such personalities possess the ability to enjoy whatever it is that they are doing which will end in a state of flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1993). That is, these people have an “intrinsic orientation" toward the activities and tasks they are attempting to achieve.
For example, artists that were interviewed 20 years after Csikszentihalyi’s original work were more likely to be recognized for their work than their counterparts who possessed an extrinsic orientation. So then, the more successful artists that engaged in flow events experienced a profound sense of enjoyment by merely engaging in their art for its own sake. In the same way, we can all find intrinsic joy in what we do.
The Secret of Happiness
For that reason, unless you are a successful artist whose work has been discovered and valued, the secret of happiness according to Dr. Csikszentmihalyi, is to teach yourselves how to find flow experiences in all that you do in life, regardless of the circumstances. When we are in flow, we are not necessarily happy, as happiness would in effect become a distraction. Happiness is, however, the subsequent emotion that often accompanies a flow event. Of all the types of professionals, blue-collar workers, students, as well as the elderly that have been studied for over thirty years, it was discovered most flow experiences take place in the workplace. This counterintuitive as most of us would believe we are the most creative and happy during our leisure time.
However, Professor Czikszentmihalyi found that 54% of employees surveyed reported experiencing a flow event at work. It is not uncommon then for many people find the elements of flow, or the potential for flow, in their places of employment. Conversely, individuals whose jobs are not challenging or intellectually stimulating often experience stress as they find little or no flow in what they do for a living.
For these reasons, flow can be applied to most any position. For example, jobs that are characterized with tasks that are routine can be thought of as a game. That is, the employee can learn to improve their time by increasing or decreasing the time associated with expanding the completion of the desired task (Csatari, 1996). If we can learn to build goals around the mundane, our lives will become more fulfilling. Examples of these in our personals lives might be shaving or taking a shower in new and creative ways. These ideas are just that – ideas, but they come to life once we begin to imagine and embrace a world where everybody is in flow.
Hence our ability to develop a flow state is contingent upon our focus, goal-orientation, perceived competence, and self-efficacy (Stein, Kissieckil, Daniels, and Jackson , 1995).With this in mind, we will now examine these concepts and pay particular attention to the construct of self-efficacy.
Self-Efficacy
Our Beliefs and Self-Efficacy
As a key affect dimension that many social psychologists have studied, self-efficacy research has produced many pragmatic applications. One of the world’s leading authority on self-efficacy, Albert Bandura, has described self - efficacy as "the belief in one's capability to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments" (Bandura, 1977, p.3). Examples of these "courses of actions" are the goals we set (Locke, Frederick, Lee & Bobko, 1984), our relative effort in achieving these goals (Bandura & Cervone, 1983), as well as the types of activities we may select in attempting to reach our goals (Bandura, 1982). Self - efficacy levels influence how we perceive our own skill set as well as how we subsequently utilize these skills (Chemers, Watson, and May, 2000).
Unlike self-esteem which is about the things that we believe about ourselves, as well as how we feel about those things,
self-efficacy concerns itself with “what we believe we can do with our skills under certain conditions" (Maddux, 2002). Self-efficacy beliefs are about what we believe we can do. Notice self-efficacy it is not about “will do" but rather “can do". This “can do “ belief is a huge part our ability to organize and arrange our capability and competence in dealing with difficult and challenging circumstances. It is irrelevant if we can actually perform the task or activity. The power of self-efficacy lies within our belief in our ability. It is the essence of what we believe we can perform in order to get what we want. These beliefs play a critical part in our emotional well -being as well as our physiological and psychological lives.
In the workplace, employees with high levels of self-efficacy excel in jobs that require independent functioning as well as the opportunity to exercise personal judgment. Managers with higher levels of self-efficacy have a propensity to utilize "problem-focused coping strategies" as opposed to their low efficacy counterparts that employ "emotion focused solutions". When we possess high efficacy levels, we become more effective in developing coping methods that actively enhance our ability to address frustrations and delay gratification. We can also use these coping methods to prevent stress and frustration from getting the best of us emotionally (Keoske, Kirk, and Keoske, 1993).
When our efficacy is high, we become more successful because we do not easily give up in the face of frustration , stress, or disappointment as we tend to be very achievement oriented and persistent. One key self-efficacy researcher defined success as the "persistent application of effort despite occasional setbacks"(Cervone, 2000, p.33). While many believe that talent and innate ability are the key ingredients to success, self-efficacy research indicates that our own sense of self-assurance, determination, and focused endeavors may serve as the most powerful indicators of our ability to succeed.
In the same way, employees with high self-efficacy are not preoccupied with potential failure, as they have learned that this belief only serves to interfere with their performance. However, our personal efficacy is not enhanced when we are confronted by our failure to achieve a particular goal. These failures in turn can motivate us to avoid tough goals or activities that are inherently challenging, and thus can have the further effect of diminishing our personal efficacy. Inefficacious thinkers tend to focus on outcome possibilities that rarely come to fruition (Sarason, 1975). However, high performers view these factors as inherently demoralizing and have learned to harness their efficacy beliefs to influence how they function by what they think, feel, and aspire to become.
The Relationship Between Self-Efficacy and Thoughts
In their goal setting and self-efficacy research, Locke and Latham (1990) found that when we possess high levels of self-efficacy, we set more difficult goals and are more committed to achieving them. They theorized that the formation of our goals begin with our thoughts. These thoughts in turn, are often constructed on the basis of how we perceive our abilities. Therefore, when our efficacy levels are high, we structure our thoughts in such a way as to instill hope in reaching our goals.
Nevertheless, emotionally when our goals are not realized in an acceptable manner, we create cognitive unrest . This unrest in turn leads to an uneasiness that is often associated with a specific lack of contentment. In order to manage this unrest, there are a number of tactics that we can proactively employ.
First, we can reformulate our goals in relation to their actual level of achievement. This is, if our goals are unrealistic, we can reassess their viability and plan accordingly. Second, we can honestly access our personal efficacy in relation to actual progress. If our personal efficacy is low, we need to reevaluate the feasibility of achieving our goals we have set. And finally, we need to learn how to “talk back" to self -defeating internal dialogue and become skilled at effectively managing our self-satisfying feedback which creates positive cognitive energy.
Thus, when our efficacy is strong, we can employ analytic thinking when faced with overwhelming challenges and practice emotional resiliency as an internal coping mechanism (Bandura and Cervone, 1986). More specifically, our efficacy beliefs play a major role in shaping our emotional capacity for resilience in the face of disappointment, as well as the level of intensity of perseverance we will expend toward the achievement of a particular goal.
Moreover, efficacy beliefs significantly contribute to what goals will be initially set as well as the amount of energy that will be utilized in their subsequent actualization. In a very real sense then, perceived self-efficacy regulates our response in the face of adversity. Moreover, the more specific and challenging our goals are, the more intense our motivation will become in relation to achieving them (Locke & Latham, 1990).
In addition, our motivation is also inexorably linked to our thoughts. We motivate ourselves by setting goals, planning how we will achieve these goals, and by finally operationalizing our plans into reality. Our efficacy beliefs therefore significantly contribute to our thoughts relative to what we are capable of achieving.
The research suggests that as we come to possess a firm grasp of this immutable truth, our ideas and goals
will become invigorated with a tremendous sense of our own powerful potential for achievement. When we learn that we can be the authors of our initial actions, we come to realize that our beliefs can effect a substantial change in our lives. These substantial changes generate the necessary energy to achieve the desired outcomes that are unique to our particular set of circumstances.
While all of these concepts are useful, due to the dynamic nature of the challenges and everyday setbacks that occur in our lives, it is essential that we maintain a personal sense of efficacy that is filled with optimism. It is this optimism that is able to fuel us to move forward and achieve our goals. With this in mind, let’s explore some of the various aspects and practical applications of optimism.
Optimism, Pessimism, and Explanatory Style
In much the same way as self-efficacy, optimism is a beneficial construct that can positively correspond to desired emotional outcomes particularly associated among health care employees. In their research, Scheier, Weintraub and Carver (1986) established that optimistic people possess more effective coping mechanisms in mitigating the stress that can serve as a barrier to successful performance. As one of the most stressful industries in the world today, the health care business may benefit by learning to teach appropriate cognitive interventions and techniques to employees that could moderate the detrimental effects prolonged stress.
Martin Seligman (1991) discovered in his research that optimists were more likely than pessimists to recover emotionally and improve their performance after a significant failure. Optimists, according to Seligman, “attribute" their success to internal causes and elect to interpret failure as being caused by external forces. There are few industries that encounter as many challenges as long-term care. The industry appears to be besieged by plaintiff attorneys, Medicaid rate reductions, as well as constantly health feeling the squeeze between Medicare reimbursement and the ability to provide appropriate clinical outcomes. It would seem then that the industry as a whole would benefit substantially if optimism were embedded into the cultures of the nation’s health care centers. To do so, the first step would be to collectively learn to embrace and acquire an individual ability to understand our explanatory style.
That is, our explanatory style is the way in which we have learn to explain bad events, emotional setbacks, and other
undesirable outcomes (Seligman , 1991). As the essence of the habitual thought patterns learned from our childhood and adolescence, our explanatory style is a direct representation of how we perceive ourselves relative to our environment. We either view ourselves as being inherently deserving and valuable or worthless. The encouraging news from Seligman's work is that if we have learned to become pessimists, we can all certainly learn to become optimists by changing our cognitive schemas. That is, the way they have learned to think.
Personalization
Personalization is about assigning blame. Those of us that have learned to become pessimists have learned to assign blame to ourselves when trouble comes our way. That is, we have learned to internalize and interpret events in such a way so as to view ourselves as the principal agents of what occurs in our lives.
The unfortunate consequence of this distorted internalization is a significant decrease in our self-esteem. As Seligman asserts, these pessimists view themselves as "worthless, talent less, and unlovable". Conversely, optimists have learned to "externalize" negative events by blaming or ascribing them to other people or some other particular set of circumstances . When optimists experience a lack of achievement they attribute it to anything other than their selves. They are not deterred by defeat as optimistic people usually also possess high levels of self-efficacy. They therefore elect to interpret failure as not putting forth enough personal effort or experiencing less than desirable conditions. They seldom attribute failure to their own personal ability as these causal attributions operate primarily in the domain of personal efficacy (Chwalise, Atlmair, and Russel, 1992).
Pessimists understandably have learned to just "give up" more readily when confronted with stress or a setback. They also have a propensity to become depressed more easily. The payoffs associated with optimism are bountiful. Optimists live longer, enjoy better health, and perform more effectively than pessimists. Moreover, it is the optimists who perceive themselves as the primary agents of the positive events that occur in their lives, whereas pessimists attribute events as being caused by other people or circumstances of which simply "happen to them" (Seligman, 1991)
Pervasiveness
When pessimists are overcome with failure in one particular area of their lives, they have a propensity to ascribe this failure to every aspect of their lives, and thus find themselves emotionally immobile or "helpless". They have learned to make universal statements and assumptions both in their internal thought life and in the way they communicate with others. However those of you who employ an optimistic explanatory style view negative casual events as attributable to "specific" aspects of areas of your lives. Therefore, although you may encounter a specific setback in one area of your life, you are quite able to function in all of the others.
People who employ rigid pessimistic thinking, tend to process negative events as permanent. Because of this, they are motivated to give up more easily. They therefore become "hopeless" when they choose to view misfortune as never ending. By contrast, as optimists we choose to interpret the unfortunate events in our lives as temporary and are therefore more motivated in resisting the urge to become helpless.
According to Seligman, it is when permanence and pervasiveness are combined that a new dimension emerges: the concept of hope. Hope occurs to humans when they are able to link and identify perceived negative causes in their lives as “temporary" in nature. As hope is similar to optimism, hope is the process that attempts to explain how we link ourselves to positive goals (Synder, 1995).
In everyday terms then hope is the process of thinking about our goals, coupled with the motivation to move forward in meaningful ways to achieve our goals (Synder, 1995). Indeed it might be said that hope is the cornerstone of all motivation and achievement.
Optimism, Flow and Self –Efficacy Applied To Health Care
Optimism then according to Seligman, is a psychological construct that can be learned. Intuitively then, it would make sense that care givers that are inherently optimistic might be more emotionally and psychologically equipped to interpret, process, and neutralize the derogatory effects of the stress and seemingly endless stream of challenging events that cascade through their lives on a daily basis.
It would follow then that optimistic caregivers might process a higher level of emotional resiliency than their pessimistic counterparts. And as such, may be inherently more productive, less depressed, enjoy lower levels of withdraw behaviors such as leaves of absence, work related injuries, absenteeism, and may be less motivated to exit their organizations when experiencing intense episodes of stress for prolonged periods of time.
These optimistic care givers it would seem might be more appropriate role models for their peers as well as the younger and less experienced workers who look to them for direction and leadership. Moreover, if Seligman's assertion is correct in that pessimists may "learn to become optimists", why then with so many obvious benefits would any health care organization elect to ignore this option as a potential intervention that might positively moderate so many of the issues the industry is faced with today? Indeed, one of the goals of this paper was to substantiate the notion that optimistic associates are inherently more beneficial to their organizations than pessimistic employees.
Self-efficacy, flow, optimism, explanatory style, and hope all share a focus on our ability to control our moods and thought life. When we experience high levels of self-efficacy, flow, optimism, and hope, intuitively it would make sense that we would be able to generate higher levels of motivation, performance, goal setting, and perseverance in achieving our personal and professional goals. It may also be rational to assume that those among us who serve in a supervisory or managerial capacity would work harder to imbue and inject the positive constructs in our respective cultures.
In support of this assertion, a recent research study of 139 Registered Nurses who worked in various health care facilities throughout the United States, were studied to determine the relationship between self-efficacy, optimism, and organizational commitment. The research revealed a statistically significant relationship between nurses that possessed
higher levels of self-efficacy with their relative commitment to their respective organization. That is, they were more motivated to work harder at their jobs and less motivated to leave their current employer. Moreover, a second statistically significant correlation was identified among nurses with higher levels of self-efficacy and optimism.
Therefore nurses that are recruited with higher levels of self-efficacy, are statistically more likely to be optimistic and more committed to their organizations (Detary, 2003).
The positive effects of recruiting and developing the self-efficacy, optimism, and flow capabilities of our employees is immeasurable, both in terms of enhanced productivity as well as an effective moderator of turnover. There are a number of practical interventions that can be utilized to operationalize these capabilities into any culture.
· First, develop a pre-employment screening tool that measures self-efficacy, optimism , and flow. This tool needs be designed and developed professionally to sustain the legal rigors of validity and reliability.
· Recruit employment candidates that currently possess and practice self-efficacy, optimism, and flow in their lives. This is a sound economic investment in your organizations’ human capital and your bottom line.
· In an effort to retain and develop your high achieving employees, consider assisting them in determining what talents and strengths they possess.
This can be achieved a number of ways. Anyone can take the (VIA) Values In Action Test on the authentichappiness.com web site. It will reveal an individual’s top five personality strengths. To best understand this process in detail, I would recommend your management team read Authentic Happiness, by
Martin Seligman. It also covers many of the topics presented in this paper in more detail.
· Require every management team member to read Learned Optimism, by Martin Seligman. This book is a classic from the world’s leading authority on optimism and can help you turn your most ardent pessimists
into dyed in the wool optimists.
· Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience, by Mikel Csikszentmihalyi, is a must read for any culture that is serious about turning a prosaic and mundane management team into a vibrant and creative force that will add “social enzymes" into any culture.
· Finally, for a more detailed and comprehensive view of self-efficacy, read Self-Efficacy in Changing Societies. It is edited by Albert Bandura , a leading authority in the field, and is filled with many practical applications concerning self-efficacy.
The goal of this article was to challenge prevailing ideas and assumptions in the areas of recruiting, retention, employee development, and culture building. When these areas are done well and approached in a seminal fashion, desired results often ensue. These views do not necessarily reflect the views of Beverly Enterprises, Inc.
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Timothy J. Detary, D.B.A. is Vice President of Human Resources at Aegis Therapies and Aseracare, and lives in Hot Springs and Fayettville, Arkansas
Great work and well researched - very applicable for the real world.
